Home

Linux commands for Reference

In this post, I want to capture the most used linux commands by me as well as some rare ones I did use, so that I can refer these commands whenever I need it.

The two books that has helped in learning these commands apart from linux itself are -

Table of Content

Commands

To know which directory we are in - pwd

pwd - To know current working directory

➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main) pwd
/home/harsha/workspace/ObsidianToGithubPages

To go inside a directory - cd

cd - Usually when you log in, you will be in the home directory. From there you can use cd i.e. change directory to go to different directory

➜  workspace cd ObsidianToGithubPages
➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main)

➜  ~ cd /home/harsha/workspace/ObsidianToGithubPages
➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main)

There are special characters which are shorthand to indicate a directory

  • To go to parent directory - cd ..
  • To go to home directory - cd ~ or cd or cd ~harsha

To Print the contents of file to stdout - cat

cat file1 - This is used to print the contents of file to stdout. It is actually used to concatenate 2 or more files. Example cat file1, file2, file3

➜ ~ cat testfile.txt
this is atest
new file

In-order to print it in reverse order use tac file1. Example tac file1, file2, file3

➜  ~ tac testfile.txt
new file
this is atest

To Print the details of the file and folder - ls

ls is the command to list the details of a file or a folder

➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main) ls
LICENSE  README.md  converter_config.yaml  obsidian_to_githubpages.py

➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main) ls obsidian_to_githubpages.py
obsidian_to_githubpages.py

We can use ls with various attributes

  • l - for long listing giving more information
  • a - include hidden files and folders
  • h - the file size details making more human readable instead of just numbers
➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main) ls -lah
total 32K
drwxrwxr-x  3 harsha harsha 4.0K Feb 11 10:02 .
drwxrwxr-x 19 harsha harsha 4.0K Mar  6 21:21 ..
drwxrwxr-x  8 harsha harsha 4.0K Feb 11 10:06 .git
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha   22 Feb 10 15:29 .gitignore
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha 1.2K Feb 10 15:29 LICENSE
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha  971 Feb 10 15:38 README.md
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha  398 Jun 14 21:02 converter_config.yaml
-rwxrwxr-x  1 harsha harsha 2.7K Feb 11 10:02 obsidian_to_githubpages.py

➜  ObsidianToGithubPages git:(main) ls -lah obsidian_to_githubpages.py
-rwxrwxr-x 1 harsha harsha 2.7K Feb 11 10:02 obsidian_to_githubpages.py

➜  workspace ls -lah ObsidianToGithubPages
total 32K
drwxrwxr-x  3 harsha harsha 4.0K Feb 11 10:02 .
drwxrwxr-x 19 harsha harsha 4.0K Mar  6 21:21 ..
drwxrwxr-x  8 harsha harsha 4.0K Feb 11 10:06 .git
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha   22 Feb 10 15:29 .gitignore
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha 1.2K Feb 10 15:29 LICENSE
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha  971 Feb 10 15:38 README.md
-rw-rw-r--  1 harsha harsha  398 Jun 14 21:02 converter_config.yaml
-rwxrwxr-x  1 harsha harsha 2.7K Feb 11 10:02 obsidian_to_githubpages.py

To Copy Files and Folders - cp

To copy file1 to file2 use cp file1 file2

➜  dir1 ls
testfile.txt
➜  dir1 cat testfile.txt
This is a test file
➜  dir1 cp testfile.txt testcopiedfile.txt
➜  dir1 ls
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt
➜  dir1 cat testcopiedfile.txt
This is a test file

To copy multiple files to a folder - cp file1 file2 file3 dir

➜  dir1 ls
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt  testfiledir
➜  dir1 ls testfiledir
➜  dir1 cp testfile.txt testcopiedfile.txt testfiledir
➜  dir1 ls testfiledir
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt
➜  dir1

To copy directory1 to directory2 we need to use -r attribute cp -r dir1 dir2

➜  Playground ls
dir1  dir2
➜  Playground ls dir1
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt  testfiledir
➜  Playground ls dir2
➜  Playground cp -r dir1 dir2
➜  Playground ls dir2
dir1
➜  Playground ls dir2/dir1
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt  testfiledir

To copy the contents of directory1 to directory2 instead of directory1 itself use cp -r dir1/* dir2

➜  Playground ls
dir1  dir2
➜  Playground ls dir2
➜  Playground ls dir1
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt  testfiledir
➜  Playground cp -r dir1/* dir2
➜  Playground ls dir2
testcopiedfile.txt  testfile.txt  testfiledir
➜  Playground

To move files and folders - mv

Instead of copy, we need to move the file from one location to another, we can use mv command. Example mv file1 file2. In its simple term it is renaming the file1 to file2

➜  dir1 ls
testfile.txt
➜  dir1 mv testfile.txt newpathtestfile.txt
➜  dir1 ls
newpathtestfile.txt
➜  dir1

To move the files from one directory to another - mv file1 file2 targetdirectory

➜  dir1 ls
testdirectory  testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  dir1 mv testfile1.txt testfile2.txt testdirectory
➜  dir1 ls
testdirectory
➜  dir1 ls testdirectory
testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  dir1

We can also move a directory into another directory

➜  dir1 ls
anothertestdir  testdirectory
➜  dir1 ls anothertestdir
➜  dir1 ls testdirectory
testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  dir1 mv testdirectory anothertestdir
➜  dir1 ls
anothertestdir
➜  dir1 ls anothertestdir
testdirectory
➜  dir1 ls anothertestdir/testdirectory
testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  dir1

To create an empty file - touch

We can use touch to create an empty file. If the file already exists, it will just update the last modification time of the file.

➜  testdirectory ls
testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory touch anotherfile.txt
➜  testdirectory ls
anotherfile.txt  testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory ls -lah
total 16K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 17:58 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 17:56 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jun 18 17:58 anotherfile.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   20 Jun 17 22:42 testfile1.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   20 Jun 17 22:58 testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory touch testfile1.txt
➜  testdirectory ls -lah
total 16K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 17:58 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 17:56 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jun 18 17:58 anotherfile.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   20 Jun 18 17:59 testfile1.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   20 Jun 17 22:58 testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory

To create a directory - mkdir

use mkdir to create the directory

➜  dir1 ls
➜  dir1 mkdir testdirectory
➜  dir1 ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 20:17 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 17 22:48 ..
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 20:17 testdirectory
➜  dir1

To delete files and folders - rm

To delete files use rm command. Example rm file1 file2 file3

➜  testdirectory ls
anotherfile.txt  testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory rm anotherfile.txt testfile1.txt testfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory ls
➜  testdirectory

If we want confirmation of the file delete before it is done, we can use -i attribute

➜  testdirectory ls
testfile1.txt  testfile2.txt  testfile3.txt
➜  testdirectory rm -i testfile1.txt testfile2.txt testfile3.txt
rm: remove regular empty file 'testfile1.txt'? y
rm: remove regular empty file 'testfile2.txt'? y
rm: remove regular empty file 'testfile3.txt'? n
➜  testdirectory ls
testfile3.txt

If we want to delete a directory then we need to use -r attribute

➜  anothertestdir ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 18:04 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 17:56 ..
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jun 18 18:05 testdirectory
➜  anothertestdir rm testdirectory
rm: cannot remove 'testdirectory': Is a directory
➜  anothertestdir rm -r testdirectory
➜  anothertestdir ls
➜  anothertestdir

Sometimes, we need to remove the files and directories which are large in number or via a script and we do not want any interactive questions while deleting. To force delete everything in a file or folder use -f flag.

➜  anothertestdir ls
testdirectory
➜  anothertestdir rm -rf testdirectory
➜  anothertestdir ls
➜  anothertestdir

To print messages to stdout - echo

To print messages to the screen use echo

➜  dir1 echo "How are you?"
How are you?
➜  dir1 echo How are you
How are you
➜  dir1

To read a text file - less

Use less to read the files in the form of pages - less file.log. Use spacebar/f to move to next page in forward direction. Use b to go to page backwards. In order to search a text in the following pages use /word. In order to search a text in the previous pages use ?word. Once searched use n to search next occurrence in forward direction and use N to search occurrence in the reverse direction. To go to the starting point of file use g. Similarly to go to the last line use G. Use F to tail the file, as the input comes, it will show the input and scroll to next line. Use &word to display only those lines which match a pattern. If you are reading a code file which uses brackets like {}, (), [] then you can type {, }, (, ), [, ] to find the corresponding opening or closing brackets - make sure those opening brackets are the first line in the screen.

To search for text in files - grep

grep is the tool to search for text in files.

In its simple form, find all the lines in the file that has a particular word in it - grep myword file.log

We can pass a regular expression for the file to search in multiple files - grep myword *.log

In order to search for case insensitive word in the file, use -i flag - grep -i myWord *.log

➜  testdirectory grep Purpose testnextfile.txt
Purpose is to use AI.
➜  testdirectory grep -i Purpose testnextfile.txt
My purpose is to provide intelligent and multilingual responses to queries.
what is our purpose?
Purpose is to use AI.
➜  testdirectory

If we want to search for all those lines which do not match the word then use -v flag - grep -v myWord *.log

➜  testdirectory grep test testnextfile3.txt
This is a test line with word - TEST
This is another test with word - TEST
➜  testdirectory grep -v test testnextfile3.txt
This is a line without the key word
➜  testdirectory

If we want to display only the file names which have the matching word/pattern then use -l flag - grep -l myword *.log. Similarly, in-order to list all the files which do not have the matching word/pattern then use -L - grep -L myword *.log

➜  testdirectory grep -l the test*
testnextfile.txt
testnextfile1.txt
➜  testdirectory grep -L the test*
testnextanotherdirectory.txt
testnextfile2.txt
➜  testdirectory

If we want to display the line number along with the line where the match was found use -n flag - grep -n myword *.log.

➜  testdirectory grep -n the test*
testnextfile.txt:5:I strive to offer accurate and insightful answers tailored to the needs of each user.
testnextfile1.txt:3:With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is the second most populous country in the world.
testnextfile1.txt:5:India is famous for its historical landmarks like the Taj Mahal and vibrant festivals like Diwali and Holi.
testnextfile1.txt:9:India's economy is one of the fastest-growing in the world, with sectors like IT, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals playing a crucial role.

To print the name of the file along with the matched lines, use flag -H - grep -H myword *.log

If we want to stop the search after max number of matched lines, use flag -m - grep -m 2 myword *.log

➜  testdirectory grep the test*
testnextfile.txt:I strive to offer accurate and insightful answers tailored to the needs of each user.
testnextfile1.txt:With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is the second most populous country in the world.
testnextfile1.txt:India is famous for its historical landmarks like the Taj Mahal and vibrant festivals like Diwali and Holi.
testnextfile1.txt:India's economy is one of the fastest-growing in the world, with sectors like IT, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals playing a crucial role.

➜  testdirectory grep -m 2 the test*
testnextfile.txt:I strive to offer accurate and insightful answers tailored to the needs of each user.
testnextfile1.txt:With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is the second most populous country in the world.
testnextfile1.txt:India is famous for its historical landmarks like the Taj Mahal and vibrant festivals like Diwali and Holi.

To get only the count of the matched lines use flag -c - grep -c myword *.log

➜  testdirectory grep -c the test*
testnextanotherdirectory.txt:0
testnextfile.txt:1
testnextfile1.txt:3
testnextfile2.txt:0

When you use regular expression to provide target files, the list of files might include the folder as well , grep will not work for directories and it will throw an error. Sometimes it cannot search a file due to permissions issue. In such cases it will print an error message. When searching large number of files, you would like to suppress these error/warnings. Use -s flag - grep -s myword *est

➜  dir1 grep "123-1234-1234" test*
testanotherfile.txt:123-1234-1234 this is a test.
grep: testdirectory: Is a directory
testfile.txt:My capabilities include language translation, information 123-1234-1234 retrieval, and problem-solving.
testfile1.txt:The country has made significant advancements in technology, 123-1234-1234 space exploration, and various industries.

➜  dir1 grep -s  "123-1234-1234" test*
testanotherfile.txt:123-1234-1234 this is a test.
testfile.txt:My capabilities include language translation, information 123-1234-1234 retrieval, and problem-solving.
testfile1.txt:The country has made significant advancements in technology, 123-1234-1234 space exploration, and various industries.

Grep do not search if the target location is a folder. If we want to search in all the files under that directory then use -r flag. Example grep -r myword targetdirectory

➜  dir1 grep "123-1234-1234" test*
testanotherfile.txt:123-1234-1234 this is a test.
grep: testdirectory: Is a directory
testfile.txt:My capabilities include language translation, information 123-1234-1234 retrieval, and problem-solving.
testfile1.txt:The country has made significant advancements in technology, 123-1234-1234 space exploration, and various industries.

➜  dir1 grep -r  "123-1234-1234" test*
testanotherfile.txt:123-1234-1234 this is a test.
testdirectory/testnextfile.txt:My capabilities include language translation, information 123-1234-1234 retrieval, and problem-solving.
testdirectory/testnextfile1.txt:The country has made significant advancements in technology, 123-1234-1234 space exploration, and various industries.
testdirectory/testnextanotherdirectory.txt:123-1234-1234 this is a test.
testfile.txt:My capabilities include language translation, information 123-1234-1234 retrieval, and problem-solving.
testfile1.txt:The country has made significant advancements in technology, 123-1234-1234 space exploration, and various industries.

Sometimes we would like to get the context around the matched line. We would like to display along with the matched line few lines before that matched line. In such cases use -B - grep -B 2 myword myfile . Similarly, sometimes we would like to see few lines after the matched line. In such cases use -A example - grep -A 2 myword myfile.

➜  testdirectory grep Hindi testnextfile1.txt
The country's official language is Hindi, but it has 22 recognized languages.
➜  testdirectory grep -B 2 Hindi testnextfile1.txt
It shares borders with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is the second most populous country in the world.
The country's official language is Hindi, but it has 22 recognized languages.
➜  testdirectory grep -A 2 Hindi testnextfile1.txt
The country's official language is Hindi, but it has 22 recognized languages.
India is famous for its historical landmarks like the Taj Mahal and vibrant festivals like Diwali and Holi.
It is a secular republic with a parliamentary system of government.
➜  testdirectory

To specify the to be matched word, we can specify regular expressions. To use regular expression for matching word, use flag -e. Example to match all the 3 letter words which are ending with letter t

➜  testdirectory grep -e "[a-z][a-z]t" testnextfile4.txt
This is cat
there is mat
then there is hat
why not pot
why not ant
hey there is bat
oh there is dot
➜  testdirectory

If we just want to list the matched word instead of complete line use -o flag -

➜  testdirectory grep -oe "[a-z][a-z]t" testnextfile4.txt
cat
mat
hat
not
pot
not
ant
bat
dot
➜  testdirectory

Some of the special characters honoured in the regular expressions are -

  • * - it can match any character 0 or more times
  • + - any character but atleast 1 occurrence should be there.
  • . - any single character
  • ? - 0 or 1 occurrence of any character
  • ^ - search the preceding characters at the beginning of the line
  • $ - search the preceding characters at the end of the line
  • [] - Used to specify a group of possible character for a single position. Example - [A-Z], [0-9], [a-z0-9], [amn]. If used with ^ it can be treated as negation - [^mto] excluding m,t,o rest of the characters is okay
  • | - to chose either one of the patter. Example - ABC|XYZ - either ABC or XYZ are matched.
  • {} - to match preceding elements based on the number of occurrence.
    • {n} - if it occurs exactly n times
    • {n,m} - if it occurs atleast n times but not more than m times
    • {n,} - if it occurs atleast n times.
    • {,m} - if it occurs not more than m times

To know the difference between files - diff

If we have 2 text files and want to compare then & find differences in them use diff - Example diff file1 file2

➜  dir1 diff tempfile1.txt tempfile2.txt
1,2c1,2
< This is a text in tempfile1
< This is an unique line in tempfile1
---
> This is a text in tempfile2
> Here is something very different in tempfile2
➜  dir1

➜  dir1 cp tempfile1.txt tempfile3.txt
➜  dir1 diff tempfile1.txt tempfile3.txt
➜  dir1

For a better format use -u - diff -u file1 file2

➜  dir1 diff -u tempfile1.txt tempfile2.txt
--- tempfile1.txt       2024-06-24 22:46:17.259536361 -0700
+++ tempfile2.txt       2024-06-24 22:47:10.270392162 -0700
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-This is a text in tempfile1
-This is an unique line in tempfile1
+This is a text in tempfile2
+Here is something very different in tempfile2
 This is a common line
➜  dir1

To count the number of lines or words or characters - wc

Sometimes we would like to get the count of lines or words in a given text file. We can use wc example - wc file.txt

➜  harsha-kadekar.github.io git:(master) wc /etc/passwd
  58  112 3578 /etc/passwd

To just know the number of lines use -l flag

➜  harsha-kadekar.github.io git:(master) wc -l /etc/passwd
58 /etc/passwd

To just know the number of words use -w flag

➜  harsha-kadekar.github.io git:(master) wc -w /etc/passwd
112 /etc/passwd

To just know the number of bytes use -c flag

➜  harsha-kadekar.github.io git:(master) wc -c /etc/passwd
3578 /etc/passwd

To sort out a given list of string or numbers - sort

If we have a list of words in a file and we want to sort them out, we can use sort command - sort myfile

➜  dir1 cat samplefile.txt
cat
bat
mat
pet
bat
eat
cat
top
bat
and
dot
➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt
and
bat
bat
bat
cat
cat
dot
eat
mat
pet
top

If we want to sort in the descending order, we can use -r flag.

➜  dir1 sort -r samplefile.txt
top
pet
mat
eat
dot
cat
cat
bat
bat
bat
and
➜  dir1

This uses alphabetic order for sorting. If we have a list of numbers, we might want to sort them as numbers, instead of alphabetic order. We need to use -n

➜  dir1 cat samplefileNumber.txt
1
56
5
7
20
3
7
89
0
5
2
44
6
18
➜  dir1 sort -n samplefileNumber.txt
0
1
2
3
5
5
6
7
7
18
20
44
56
89
➜  dir1

To filter out duplicate lines and get only unique entries - uniq

In the sorted list, we want to use only the unique elements, in such a case, we can use uniq command on the sort output.

➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt
and
bat
bat
bat
cat
cat
dot
eat
mat
pet
top
➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt | uniq
and
bat
cat
dot
eat
mat
pet
top

If we want to know the number of occurrence of the words then use -c flag

➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt | uniq -c
      1 and
      3 bat
      2 cat
      1 dot
      1 eat
      1 mat
      1 pet
      1 top

If we want to only display the repeated words then we can use -d flag

➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt | uniq -d
bat
cat

The opposite case of display only those which are unique and not repeated, can be achieved via -u flag

➜  dir1 sort samplefile.txt | uniq -u
and
dot
eat
mat
pet
top

To find a file - find

Sometimes we do not know the location of the file. We can use find to locate that file in the given directory tree - find dir -name file -print

➜  ~ ls ~/workspace/Playground/dir1/testdirectory
tempfile3.txt  testnextanotherdirectory.txt  testnextfile1.txt  testnextfile3.txt
tempfile4.txt  testnextfile.txt              testnextfile2.txt  testnextfile4.txt
➜  ~ find workspace -name tempfile4.txt -print
workspace/Playground/dir1/testdirectory/tempfile4.txt
➜  ~
➜  ~ find workspace -name tempfile3.txt -print
workspace/Playground/dir1/testdirectory/tempfile3.txt
workspace/Playground/dir1/tempfile3.txt
➜  ~

find can do multiple things on finding the file like print contents or exec. Example to know all the files and folder in a folder we can use find directorypath

➜  ~ find ~ | wc -l
731986
➜  ~

We can use -type argument to restrict the search to particular type of file - file, directory, symbolic link

➜  ~ find workspace -name commonfilefolder -print
workspace/Playground/dir2/testfiledir/commonfilefolder
workspace/Playground/dir2/commonfilefolder
➜  ~ find workspace -type d -name commonfilefolder -print
workspace/Playground/dir2/testfiledir/commonfilefolder
➜  ~ find workspace -type f -name commonfilefolder -print
workspace/Playground/dir2/commonfilefolder
➜  ~

We can also use size attribute to search files based on file size.

➜  ~ find Downloads -type f -size +100M | wc -l
49
➜  ~ find Downloads -type f -size +200M | wc -l
38

We also have following useful parameter

  • -empty - match only empty files and directories
  • -name pattern - match files and directory with specified pattern
  • -user name - match files and directories belonging the given user
  • -newer file - match only files which are newer that the given file

Once we find the files, we can ask find to act on it like -

  • -delete - this will delete the matching files
  • quit - quit find immediately after first match
  • -ls - do a ls on the found file/folder

We can use -exec command '{}' ';' to execute custom commands on the matched files/folders. Example find ~ -type f -name 'testfile*' ls -l '{}' ';' . We can make the command interactive with -ok attribute - find ~ -type f -name 'testfile*' -ok ls -l '{}' ';'

To view last few lines of the file or follow the log in live - tail

tail can be used to view the last 10 lines of the file tail myfile. We can modify the number of lines to display with -n flag.

➜  dir1 cat tempfile1.txt
This is a text in tempfile1
This is an unique line in tempfile1
This is a common line
➜  dir1 tail -n 2 tempfile1.txt
This is an unique line in tempfile1
This is a common line
➜  dir1

Sometimes we would want to view the content of the file live as in as it gets added by another process, we need to use -f flag. It will keep following the file until Ctrl+C is pressed.

➜  dir1 tail -f tempfile1.txt

To view first few lines of the file - head

Similar to tail command, this command helps to view the first few lines of the file. By default it will show first 10 lines. With -n flag, we can control the number of lines we want to display.

➜  dir1 cat tempfile1.txt
This is a text in tempfile1
This is an unique line in tempfile1
This is a common line
this is a new line added in live
➜  dir1 head -n 2 tempfile1.txt
This is a text in tempfile1
This is an unique line in tempfile1
➜  dir1

To extract section of text from the line - cut

We can use cut to extract particular fields or certain range of characters from the given line. To extract based on the field we can use flag -f. By default cut divides the line based on the tab/space.

➜  dir1 cat datafile.txt
Harsha  ABC     2024-07-12      45red89
Anu     MNO     2024-11-01      67sea90
Smriti  JKL     2024-01-23      90blr45
➜  dir1 cut -f 3 datafile.txt
2024-07-12
2024-11-01
2024-01-23

If we want to use some other delimiter than tab/space then use -d flag with the delimiter mentioned.

➜  dir1 cut -f 3 datafile.txt | cut -d '-' -f 2
07
11
01

If we want to cut specific position of characters, we can use -c flag

➜  dir1 cut -f 4 datafile.txt | cut -c 3-5
red
sea
blr

To list process that are running - ps

ps command helps to list all processes which are running in the system. The default ps will only display the current process associated with the current terminal.

➜  Playground ps
    PID TTY          TIME CMD
  36329 pts/3    00:00:00 zsh
  36698 pts/3    00:00:00 ps
➜  Playground
  • PID is the process ID
  • TTY is the terminal id to which these processes are associated
  • TIME is the amount of time process spent in CPU
  • CMD is actual command that started this process

In order to list all the process belonging the current user across all terminals, we need to use x. This will also give more details about the process

➜  Playground ps x
    PID TTY      STAT   TIME COMMAND
   2290 ?        Ss     0:01 /lib/systemd/systemd --user
   2291 ?        S      0:00 (sd-pam)
   2297 ?        S<sl   0:00 /usr/bin/pipewire
   2298 ?        Ssl    0:11 /usr/bin/pipewire-media-session
   2299 ?        S<sl  14:24 /usr/bin/pulseaudio --daemonize=no --log-target=journal
   4692 ?        Sl     0:00 /opt/vivaldi/chrome_crashpad_handler --monitor-self --monitor-self-annotation=ptype=crashpad-handler --database=/home/harsha/.config/vivaldi/Crash Reports --url=https://crash
   4694 ?        Sl     0:00 /opt/vivaldi/chrome_crashpad_handler --no-periodic-tasks --no-rate-limit --monitor-self-annotation=ptype=crashpad-handler --database=/home/harsha/.config/vivaldi/Crash Report
   4700 ?        S      0:00 /opt/vivaldi/vivaldi-bin --type=zygote --no-zygote-sandbox --crashpad-handler-pid=4692 --enable-crash-reporter=,stable --change-stack-guard-on-fork=enable
   4984 ?        Sl     0:01 update-notifier
   6362 ?        Sl     1:00 /snap/obsidian/34/obsidian --no-sandbox
   10790 ?        Z      0:00 [sd_espeak-ng-mb] <defunct>
    36800 pts/3    R+     0:00 ps x
  • If a TTY is ? that means, no terminal is associated to the process.
  • STAT - state of the process. Example S means process is sleeping and waiting for an interrupt to wake up. R means running. Z means a zombie process which is terminated and parent has not yet cleaned up. < means higher priority process and L means low priority process

To get a detailed process across all terminals and users, we need to use aux

➜  Playground ps aux
USER         PID %CPU %MEM    VSZ   RSS TTY      STAT START   TIME COMMAND
root           1  0.0  0.0 167548 11956 ?        Ss   07:35   0:03 /sbin/init splash
root           2  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        S    07:35   0:00 [kthreadd]
root           3  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        I<   07:35   0:00 [rcu_gp]
root           4  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        I<   07:35   0:00 [rcu_par_gp]
root           5  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        I<   07:35   0:00 [slub_flushwq]
root           6  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        I<   07:35   0:00 [netns]
root        1202  0.0  0.0      0     0 ?        I<   07:35   0:00 [ext4-rsv-conver]
systemd+    1241  0.1  0.0  14836  6784 ?        Ss   07:35   1:39 /lib/systemd/systemd-oomd
systemd+    1242  0.0  0.0  26200 13932 ?        Ss   07:35   0:25 /lib/systemd/systemd-resolved
syslog      1371  0.0  0.0 222456  5888 ?        Ssl  07:35   0:00 /usr/sbin/rsyslogd -n -iNONE
lp          2255  0.0  0.0  16288  6528 ?        S    07:35   0:00 /usr/lib/cups/notifier/dbus dbus://
harsha      2290  0.0  0.0  18560 11136 ?        Ss   07:35   0:01 /lib/systemd/systemd --user
harsha      2291  0.0  0.0 105220  6576 ?        S    07:35   0:00 (sd-pam)
harsha      2297  0.0  0.0  40696  6400 ?        S<sl 07:35   0:00 /usr/bin/pipewire
harsha      2298  0.0  0.0  24332  6528 ?        Ssl  07:35   0:11 /usr/bin/pipewire-media-session
harsha     33810  0.5  0.2 1374176 90444 ?       Rl   21:33   0:14 /snap/alacritty/130/bin/alacritty
  • USER - this gives the user which owns/created this process
  • %CPU - Total percentage of CPU utilised by the process until now
  • %MEM - Total percentage of memory utilised by the process until now
  • VSZ - Total virtual size of the RAM utilised by the process
  • RSS - This is the physical RAM size utilised by the process
  • START - This is the time of the day when the process was started.

To view the system stats and list of processes in real time - top

Unlike ps, top gives the real time view of all the process running with sorted based on the CPU utilisation. top refreshes every 3 seconds

➜  ~ top

top - 23:33:55 up 16:01,  1 user,  load average: 1.07, 0.74, 0.72
Tasks: 383 total,   1 running, 381 sleeping,   0 stopped,   1 zombie
%Cpu(s):  0.7 us,  0.4 sy,  0.0 ni, 98.2 id,  0.6 wa,  0.0 hi,  0.0 si,  0.0 st
MiB Mem :  31945.3 total,  19023.3 free,   5263.4 used,   7658.7 buff/cache
MiB Swap:   2048.0 total,   2048.0 free,      0.0 used.  24934.8 avail Mem

    PID USER      PR  NI    VIRT    RES    SHR S  %CPU  %MEM     TIME+ COMMAND
   2540 harsha    20   0 5997132 354500 159296 S   5.3   1.1  36:31.31 gnome-shell
  25449 harsha    20   0 1349972  88344  61508 S   1.3   0.3   0:00.74 alacritty
   6201 harsha    20   0 1140.3g 367220 129584 S   1.0   1.1  10:00.25 obsidian
  24538 harsha    20   0 1133.8g 332880 142924 S   1.0   1.0   1:25.30 vivaldi-bin
   1270 root      20   0 2133856  35164  19584 S   0.7   0.1   0:15.26 snapd
   4628 harsha    20   0   32.8g 533412 254964 S   0.7   1.6  11:26.93 vivaldi-bin
   4682 harsha    20   0   32.4g 148796 106708 S   0.7   0.5   5:42.27 vivaldi-bin
   6176 harsha    20   0   32.7g 145412  98048 S   0.7   0.4  11:15.50 obsidian
   6818 harsha    20   0 9851.2m 315956 180404 S   0.7   1.0   8:44.26 spotify
    678 root     -51   0       0      0      0 S   0.3   0.0   0:15.02 irq/144-iwlwifi:default_queue
    869 root      20   0       0      0      0 S   0.3   0.0   5:22.79 nv_queue
   2873 harsha    20   0  719316  68876  41968 S   0.3   0.2   0:47.72 ulauncher
   2926 harsha    20   0  708212 111444  73856 S   0.3   0.3   8:24.45 Xwayland
   3092 harsha    20   0   36.7g 136260 104176 S   0.3   0.4   1:54.10 breaktimer
   4768 harsha    20   0 1132.0g 391660 137444 S   0.3   1.2   7:27.01 vivaldi-bin
   4791 harsha    20   0 7967144 332528  49792 S   0.3   1.0   2:33.62 jetbrains-toolb
   5908 harsha    20   0 1132.0g 261640 129736 S   0.3   0.8   6:40.10 vivaldi-bin
   7033 harsha    20   0   50.3g 280020 107984 S   0.3   0.9  53:06.65 spotify
  11532 harsha    20   0 1133.9g 358624 171444 S   0.3   1.1   5:40.96 vivaldi-bin
  11570 harsha    20   0   32.4g 113316  59164 S   0.3   0.3   1:41.08 vivaldi-bin
  24729 root      20   0       0      0      0 I   0.3   0.0   0:00.09 kworker/2:1-mm_percpu_wq
  25619 harsha    20   0 1678412  74392  17184 S   0.3   0.2   0:00.90 zellij
  25690 harsha    20   0   14600   4224   3200 R   0.3   0.0   0:00.70 top
      1 root      20   0  168976  13436   8060 S   0.0   0.0   0:05.43 systemd

The top row is showing

  • 23:33:55 - the current time of the day
  • up 16:01 - System is up for 16 hours
  • 1 user - 1 user is logged in
  • load average: 1.07, 0.74, 0.72 - Number of processes waiting to run 5 second, 5 mins and 15 mins
  • Tasks - Number of processes and categorised based on the state of the process
  • %Cpu(s) - How the CPU is being used - u for user processes, s for system/kernel process, ni for nice/lower priority processes, id for idle, wa for waiting for IO, hi for managing hardware interrupts, si for managing software interrupts, st for getting hold of physical CPU/ time stolen by the hypervisor.
  • MiB Mem and MiB Swap - memory and swap usage information
  • VIRT is virtual memory, RES is the physical memory and SHR is shared memory

    To kill a process that is running - kill

Sometimes the process has reached a bad state or just in a zombie state without doing anything. In such cases, we can use kill to terminate the process. Example - kill 1234 where 1234 was the process id. kill command performs this action by sending signals. It can send multiple types of signals.

  • TERM - 15 - Send terminate signal to the program. This is the default signal of kill command. Usage kill -TERM PID or kill -15 PID
  • INT - 2 - Send interrupt signal to the program. Ctrl - C generates this signal. Usage kill -INT PID or kill -2 PID
  • KILL - 9 - Send this signal to kernel to kill a particular program. So, program will not receive this signal, hence not able to clean up properly. Use it rarely. Usage kill -STOP PID or kill -9 PID
  • STOP - 19 - Send this signal to kernel to stop a particular program without actually terminating it. Usage kill -STOP PID or kill -19 PID
  • TSTP - 20 - Send this signal for a terminal linked process to stop without killing it. We can use ctrl z to achieve this as well. Usage kill -TSTP PID or kill -20 PID

We can use killall command to kill all the processes matching a user or a program name. Usage killall -u kadekar or killall vivaldi

To know about the version of kernel system is using - uname

Sometimes we may want to know the version of Linux kernel the system is running. The command to use will be uname -r

➜  ~ uname -r
6.5.0-41-generic
➜  ~

It can also provide other information about the machine like

Kernel Name:

➜  ~ uname -s
Linux
➜

Platform Type

➜  ~ uname -i
x86_64
➜

Operating System

➜  ~ uname -o
GNU/Linux
➜  ~

To create shortcut of file or directory - ln

ln is for creating hard links. Hard links cannot be created outside of a file system and we cannot create hard link to a directory. Hence, more convenient is to have soft links. The way to create soft link is ln -s target linkname. Here target can be actual path or a relative path. This will create new file with linkname. If you check the content of the linkname, it will have an entry for the target.

➜  testground ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:14 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 17 21:38 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   15 Jul 21 22:14 originalfile
➜  testground cat originalfile
this is a test
➜  testground ln -s originalfile symlinkexample
➜  testground ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:15 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 17 21:38 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   15 Jul 21 22:14 originalfile
lrwxrwxrwx 1 harsha harsha   12 Jul 21 22:15 symlinkexample -> originalfile
➜  testground cat symlinkexample
this is a test
➜  testground

➜  Playground ls
dir1  dir2
➜  Playground ls -lah dir2/testground
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:15 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 17 21:38 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   15 Jul 21 22:14 originalfile
lrwxrwxrwx 1 harsha harsha   12 Jul 21 22:15 symlinkexample -> originalfile
➜  Playground ln -s dir2/testground symdir
➜  Playground ls -lah symdir
lrwxrwxrwx 1 harsha harsha 15 Jul 21 22:19 symdir -> dir2/testground
➜  Playground cd symdir
➜  symdir ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:15 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 17 21:38 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha   15 Jul 21 22:14 originalfile
lrwxrwxrwx 1 harsha harsha   12 Jul 21 22:15 symlinkexample -> originalfile
➜  symdir

With the hardlink, inode number will be same but the hard link count increases for each new hard link. Soft link will have different inode numbers.

➜  dir_temp2 ln ../dir_temp1/testfileTemp1 testfileTemp2
➜  dir_temp2 cd ..
➜  testdirectory ls -ilah dir_temp2/testfileTemp2
5900489 -rw-rw-r-- 2 harsha harsha 33 Jul 21 22:23 dir_temp2/testfileTemp2
➜  testdirectory cat dir_temp2/testfileTemp2
this is a test file of dir_temp1
➜  testdirectory ln -s dir_temp1/testfileTemp1 symtempfile
➜  testdirectory ls -ilah symtempfile
5899755 lrwxrwxrwx 1 harsha harsha 23 Jul 21 22:36 symtempfile -> dir_temp1/testfileTemp1
➜  testdirectory cat symtempfile
this is a test file of dir_temp1
➜  testdirectory ls -ilah dir_temp1/testfileTemp1
5900489 -rw-rw-r-- 2 harsha harsha 33 Jul 21 22:23 dir_temp1/testfileTemp1
➜  testdirectory

To change the owner of the file or folder - chown

In unix, each file or folder is owned by a user and group. We can use chown to change the ownership of these files and folders. Example - chown user:group filename

➜  dir_temp1 ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 28 18:52 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:36 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 2 harsha harsha   33 Jul 21 22:23 testfileTemp1
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 28 18:52 testfileTemp2
➜  dir_temp1 sudo chown root:root testfileTemp1
[sudo] password for harsha:
➜  dir_temp1 ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 28 18:52 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:36 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 2 root   root     33 Jul 21 22:23 testfileTemp1
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 28 18:52 testfileTemp2

To change the permission of the file or folder - chmod

We can use chmod to update the permissions to the file and folder. We can provide or remove read, write and execute permissions for user , group and others. We can give the permissions in the form of octal numbers or characters (r, w, x).

➜  dir1 ls -lah
total 8.0K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:39 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:38 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 30 21:39 testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 chmod 400 testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 ls -lah
total 8.0K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:39 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:38 ..
-r-------- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 30 21:39 testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 chmod +x testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 ls -lah
total 8.0K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:39 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:38 ..
-r-x--x--x 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 30 21:39 testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 chmod u+w testfile1.txt
➜  dir1 ls -lah
total 8.0K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:39 .
drwxrwxr-x 3 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 30 21:38 ..
-rwx--x--x 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 30 21:39 testfile1.txt
➜  dir1

To copy bytes or characters from input file to output file - dd

If want to read from a block/character device file and write to an output file or output device file then use dd.

➜  dir_temp1 ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 28 18:52 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:36 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 2 root   root     33 Jul 21 22:23 testfileTemp1
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 28 18:52 testfileTemp2
➜  dir_temp1 dd if=/dev/zero of=test_dd_output bs=1024 count=1
1+0 records in
1+0 records out
1024 bytes (1.0 kB, 1.0 KiB) copied, 5.2137e-05 s, 19.6 MB/s
➜  dir_temp1 ls -lah
total 16K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 28 21:25 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Jul 21 22:36 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha 1.0K Jul 28 21:25 test_dd_output
-rw-rw-r-- 2 root   root     33 Jul 21 22:23 testfileTemp1
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha    0 Jul 28 18:52 testfileTemp2

To Archive list of files and directories - tar

To archive list of files and folders into a single file we use tar command. tar has 3 main options -

  • to create archive file c - Example tar cf myarchive.tar targetfolder. This will archive all the contents of the targetfolder and generates the tar file myarchive.tar. If we use the actual path to the targetfolder, it will use the complete path from the root when this archive is extracted.
  • to list the contents of archive file t - Example tar tf myarchive.tar. This will generate the list of pathnames present in that archive file.
➜  Playground tar tf myarchive.tar
playground/
playground/dir-077/
playground/dir-077/file-K
playground/dir-077/file-H
playground/dir-077/file-N
playground/dir-077/file-X
playground/dir-077/file-L
playground/dir-077/file-T
playground/dir-077/file-G
playground/dir-077/file-E
playground/dir-077/file-W
playground/dir-077/file-C
playground/dir-077/file-D

We can use v to have long listing of the files and folders inside the archive. Example tar tvf myarchive.tar

drwxrwxr-x harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-K
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-H
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-N
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-X
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-L
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-T
-rw-rw-r-- harsha/harsha     0 2024-09-03 19:23 playground/dir-028/file-G
  • to extract the archive file x -
➜  foo tar xf ../myarchive.tar
➜  foo ls
playground
➜  foo

In all of these f means file name of the tar file.

We can combine compression with the archiving by using following options -

  • We can generate the gzip file using z option -
➜  Playground tar czf mycompressedarchive.tgz playground
➜  Playground ls -lah
total 1.4M
drwxrwxr-x   3 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 19:47 .
drwxrwxr-x  21 harsha harsha 4.0K Aug  8 18:31 ..
-rw-rw-r--   1 harsha harsha 1.4M Sep  3 19:41 myarchive.tar
-rw-rw-r--   1 harsha harsha  21K Sep  3 19:47 mycompressedarchive.tgz
drwxrwxr-x 102 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 19:22 playground

We can use j for bzip2 compression instead of gzip. We can use similarly with the extraction. Example tar xzf mycompressedarchive.tgz

To compress & uncompress files and directories - gzip/bzip2/zip/gunzip/bunzip2/unzip

We can use gzip to compress a file. To uncompress the file we use gunzip. Example - gzip foo.txt and gunzip foo.txt.gz

➜  foo ls -lah /etc > listing_file.txt
➜  foo ls -lah
total 32K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 11 21:36 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 21:10 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha  21K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt
➜  foo gzip listing_file.txt
➜  foo ls -lah
total 12K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 11 21:36 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 21:10 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha 2.9K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt.gz
➜  foo gunzip listing_file.txt.gz
➜  foo ls -lah
total 32K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 11 21:42 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 21:10 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha  21K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt

If we want to compress all the files within a directory we need to use -r flag. Example gzip -r logdirectory/ If we want to keep the input file even after the operation, we can use -k flag.

➜  foo gzip -k listing_file.txt
➜  foo ls -lah
total 36K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 11 21:51 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 21:10 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha  21K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha 2.9K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt.gz
➜  foo

bzip2 is also used for compression of files. It produces higher compressed file than gzip though it is of speed is less.

➜  foo ls
listing_file.txt
➜  foo gzip -k listing_file.txt
➜  foo bzip2 -k listing_file.txt
➜  foo ls -lah
total 40K
drwxrwxr-x 2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 17 21:35 .
drwxrwxr-x 4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 21:10 ..
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha  21K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha 2.5K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt.bz2
-rw-rw-r-- 1 harsha harsha 2.9K Sep 11 21:36 listing_file.txt.gz

Any file which is compressed via bzip2 can be uncompressed via bunzip2. Most of the options of gzip is present in bzip2 and similar case for bunzip2 & gunzip

We can also use zip to compress and archive the files. Similarly unzip is for de-compress and de-archive the file.

To compress & archive -

➜  Playground ls
foo  playground
➜  Playground zip -qr playground.zip playground
➜  Playground ls -lah
total 556K
drwxrwxr-x   4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 30 21:46 .
drwxrwxr-x  21 harsha harsha 4.0K Aug  8 18:31 ..
drwxrwxr-x   2 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 17 21:35 foo
drwxrwxr-x 102 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 19:22 playground
-rw-rw-r--   1 harsha harsha 537K Sep 30 21:46 playground.zip

If it is a folder than r flag needs to be used. q is the quite mode to not to display any information messages that displayed during the process.

To uncompress -

➜  foo ls
playground.zip
➜  foo unzip -q playground.zip
➜  foo ls -lah
total 552K
drwxrwxr-x   3 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 30 21:48 .
drwxrwxr-x   4 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep 30 21:47 ..
drwxrwxr-x 102 harsha harsha 4.0K Sep  3 19:22 playground
-rw-rw-r--   1 harsha harsha 537K Sep 30 21:46 playground.zip
➜  foo

To understand the disk consumption in a directory - du

Sometimes we want to understand which files and folders within a directory are leading to the consumption of the disk in a directory. The du command will help to give the exact disk consumption of each files within a directory including its sub directories.

➜  Playground du -ah foo
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-B.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-M.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-D.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-E.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-A.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-L.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-P.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-O.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-C.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-R.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-H.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-J.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-I.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-S.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-N.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-V.gz
0       foo/playground/dir-100/file-Z
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-U.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-K.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-T.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-Q.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-X.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-G.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-Y.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-W.gz
4.0K    foo/playground/dir-100/file-F.gz
104K    foo/playground/dir-100
108K    foo/playground
540K    foo/playground.zip
652K    foo

Here a option is making it to print every file in the directory foo. If we just need directories then drop a. We can get a summary as well with s option

➜  Playground du -sh foo
652K    foo

We can also list the last modification time of each of the files.

➜  Playground du -h --time foo
104K    2024-09-11 21:46        foo/playground/dir-100
108K    2024-11-17 16:03        foo/playground
652K    2024-11-17 16:03        foo

We can use to list the inode consumption instead of size with --inode option.

➜  Playground du -h --inodes --time foo
27      2024-09-11 21:46        foo/playground/dir-100
28      2024-11-17 16:03        foo/playground
30      2024-11-17 16:03        foo

Sometimes, I need to get details upto a certain sub directory. In such a case use d or max-depth option

➜  ~ du -ah -d 1 workspace
528K    workspace/no-style-please-master
19M     workspace/obsidian-translations
304K    workspace/dotfiles
11M     workspace/PLPAssembler
3.7M    workspace/LogsAndReflections
332K    workspace/ObsidianToGithubPages
1.4G    workspace/subhasitas
68K     workspace/SimplePrograms
65M     workspace/testinggitpull
12M     workspace/pythonProject1
1.1M    workspace/pre-release-copy-blog
24M     workspace/Albert-Mozhi
20K     workspace/JavaTutorial
162M    workspace/RustTutorial
11M     workspace/Playground
66M     workspace/LocalWorkspaceSync
5.9M    workspace/old_blog_folder
44M     workspace/pusthaka
292K    workspace/temp_blog
6.9M    workspace/harsha-kadekar.github.io
1.8G    workspace

Sometimes, we only care about certain size files. Either smaller files or bigger files. We can use t or threshold option to mention the thresholds of the file size. If given positive value, it will ignore all the files which are smaller than that number and if given negative value, it will ignore all the files which are greater than that number

➜  ~ du -ah -d 1 -t 66M  workspace
1.4G    workspace/subhasitas
162M    workspace/RustTutorial
1.8G    workspace
➜  ~ du -ah -d 1 -t -66M  workspace
528K    workspace/no-style-please-master
19M     workspace/obsidian-translations
304K    workspace/dotfiles
11M     workspace/PLPAssembler
3.7M    workspace/LogsAndReflections
332K    workspace/ObsidianToGithubPages
68K     workspace/SimplePrograms
65M     workspace/testinggitpull
12M     workspace/pythonProject1
1.1M    workspace/pre-release-copy-blog
24M     workspace/Albert-Mozhi
20K     workspace/JavaTutorial
11M     workspace/Playground
66M     workspace/LocalWorkspaceSync
5.9M    workspace/old_blog_folder
44M     workspace/pusthaka
292K    workspace/temp_blog
6.9M    workspace/harsha-kadekar.github.io

Sometimes, we would like to exclude certain type of files. We can use X or exclude or exclude-from option. Exclude-from option will take a file as input with all the file patterns that need to be excluded.

➜  SimplePrograms du -ah .
4.0K    ./FindShortestPath.java
4.0K    ./find_shortest_path.py
4.0K    ./find_shortest_path.cpp
4.0K    ./.vscode/launch.json
4.0K    ./.vscode/tasks.json
12K     ./.vscode
40K     ./find_shortest_path
68K     .
➜  SimplePrograms du -ah --exclude="*.json"  .
4.0K    ./FindShortestPath.java
4.0K    ./find_shortest_path.py
4.0K    ./find_shortest_path.cpp
4.0K    ./.vscode
40K     ./find_shortest_path
60K     .